Virtue Ethics
"Where Excellence is a Habit"
Virtue Ethics Overview
- Virtue ethics originated with Aristotle.
- The highest good is happiness.
- Happiness is "an activity of soul in accordance with perfect virtue."
- There are moral and intellectual virtues.
- There are individual virtues (such as moderation) and social virtues (such as justice).
- Ethics is not just about actions but about the whole of life.
- Applying virtues takes practical wisdom.
- The "function" of humanity has to do with our rationality.
- Friendship is a virtue.
- Objections: Not everyone can know what is right; not practical; virtues can conflict; objective goodness of "living well"?
1. Virtue ethics originated with Aristotle.
That is it originated (in the west) with Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and other Greeks, and (in the east) to Confucious and others.
2. The highest good is happiness.
Not pleasure, honor, or wealth. These are not "self-sufficient". We want them for the sake of something else.
We want happiness for its own sake.
3. Happiness is "an activity of soul in accordance with perfect virtue."
In other words, virtue ethics says that the good life, happiness, well-being, is only possible for the virtuous and wise person.
4. There are moral and intellectual virtues.
Aristotle says: "Virtues" are good habits of feeling, action, and thought." The goal is ‘to feel [desires and emotions] at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way’.
Moral virtues concern intermediate between excess and deficiency, intellectual virtues assist you in judging true and false.
5. There are individual virtues (such as moderation) and social virtues (such as justice).
Some virtues have to do with how I comport myself even when no one is looking. On a desert island, I could be virtuous or vice-ridden.
Other virtues have to do with how I comport myself in society. I can't be unjust to others if no others are around. I owe respect to my elders, but can't if I am the eldest. I owe care to my children, but can't if I don't have children.
6. Ethics is not just about actions but about the whole of life.
Ethical dilemmas are crucially important in Utilitarianism and Deontology.
In virtue ethics, dilemmas are still important, but not as important as daily life. Daily life is about setting priorities, pursuing them, and thinking long-term.
The primary question is: "how should I live?" What kind of life should I live?
For example, what major goods should I pursue? What career should I choose? Marriage or no? Kids or no? Where should I live?
7. Applying virtues takes practical wisdom.
- A general conception of what is good or bad (conditions for human flourishing);
- The ability to perceive, in light of that general conception, what is required in terms of feeling, choice, and action in a particular situation; the ability to deliberate well; and the ability to act on that deliberation.
There are few safe generalizations about right and wrong. But ethics is not subjective; it is ‘context-sensitive’.
Practical wisdom is a form of intuitive reason. It is a "know how" rather than a "know that".
Practical wisdom cannot be taught, but must be acquired through experience. Like piano playing, tennis, or making conversation.
8. The 'function' of humanity has to do with our rationality.
What is it that humans do but no other creature does?
- Not life -- plants are alive, reproduce, grow, etc.
- Not consciousness -- animals are conscious
Rational choice -- only humans make rational choices on the basis of reflection. We judge what is true or false, good or bad, and act accordingly.
Put differently, you can't know what to do if you don't know (a) the facts and (b) what is worthwhile. Should I move to Canada or stay in the U.S.? I can only answer that if I know what each place is like, and how well each place would fit my goals and allow me to acquire more virtue.
9. Friendship is a virtue.
Friendship is not just a relationship but an activity -- the activity of being a good friend, benefiting your friends, etc. It requires reciprical respect but also actual benefits. Hence, one can be in or out of the habit of friendship.
10. Objections: Not everyone can know what is right; not practical; virtues can conflict; objective goodness of "living well"?
- Not everyone can know what is right. Supposing that you are born with a lower IQ or without access to education, can you not become virtuous and not happy? Response:
- Not practical. Virtues are broad, not specific. "Be virtuous" doesn't seem as useful as "don't ever lie." Response:
- Virtues can conflict. What about the conflict between honesty and kindness?
Before you go
- Questions?
- Write a short response
- Rent and watch "Inside Job" (anywhere online!), by yourself or in a group.
Business and Religion
Goals today
- Get some context on religion in the U.S. and the world.
- Apply that to business.
- Discuss the ways religion affects ethics.
Intro
- Most people are religious; that is, they adhere to a particular religious tradition and/or they believe that the universe was created or sustained by God.
- Religion and ethics have a complex relationship.
Your perceptions
Ask yourself:
- How many people are religious?
- How many people are secular?
- How many people are immoral?
- How many people are moral?
Religion and public morality
Religion and public morality
In the US Today:(citation 1)
- 68% Christian
- 10% other religious affiliation
- 22% unaffiliated total including atheists (5-8%), agnostics, humanists, and “spiritual but not religious” nones (5-8%).
Religion and public morality
In the US Today:
- In general, 7 out of 10 people are religious.
- In general, 2 out of 10 people are unaffiliated, spiritual, agnostic, or atheist.
Religion and public morality
Exceptions
- Academia (50-60% religious) (citation 1)
- Philosophy (15% religious)(citation 2)
- Science (42% religious)(citation 3)
- Kentucky (76% Christian)
- Entertainment industry?
- News Media?
Religion and public morality
- 78% Religious (broadly defined)
- 22% non-affiliated or non-religious
Compare with:
- The Czech Republic, 21% religious
- Sweden and Denmark 17%-18% religious
- US is 5-8% atheist; Japan is 31% atheist
Religion and public morality
So how does this affect business?
Some businesses are composed of mostly religious people; some are composed of mostly secular people.
Some businesses take a public stand on religion. Others don't.
Religious Businesses:
Chick Fil-A
Tyson
Forever 21
Mary Kay
Alaska Airlines
Hobby Lobby
Tom’s
Salvation Army
AA
Non-religious Businesses:
Starbucks
Popeye’s
Michael’s
GoodWill
Rational Recovery
But when it comes to their ethics, most people take some cues from their religion.
How does religion affect morality?
One major answer is: divine command theory
Divine command theory
- Divine Command Theory is the view that morality in some way depends on God or the divine.
- “(i) God in some sense determines what is moral;
- (ii) moral obligations are derived from God’s commands, where these commands are understood as statements of the revealed divine will.”
Divine command theory
- The straightforward version of Divine Command Theory is the Judeo-Christian version where God tells his people how to live and what not to do.
- That is not the only version, however.
- It might be that we know how to live and what not to do even without divine commands;
- It might be that god gives commands for other reasons than knowledge, such as encouragement.
Divine command theory
- Michael Austin: “Divine Command Theory has been and continues to be highly controversial. It has been criticized by numerous philosophers, including Plato, Kai Nielsen, and J. L. Mackie.
- The theory also has many defenders, both classic and contemporary, such as Thomas Aquinas, Robert Adams, and Philip Quinn.
- The question of the possible connections between religion and ethics is of interest to moral philosophers as well as philosophers of religion, but it also leads us to consider the role of religion in society as well as the nature of moral deliberation. Given this, the arguments offered for and against Divine Command Theory have both theoretical and practical importance.”
Divine command theory - Possible advantages
- Immanuel Kant argues that "we must believe that God exists because the requirements of morality are too much for us to bear. We must believe that there is a God who will help us satisfy the demands of the moral law. With such a belief, we have the hope that we will be able to live moral lives." (Austin)
- That is, if the origin of the universe is a personal moral being, then the existence of objective moral truths are at home, so to speak, in the universe. By contrast, if the origin of the universe is non-moral, then the existence of such truths becomes philosophically perplexing, because it is unclear how moral properties can come into existence via non-moral origins.
Divine command theory - Possible disadvantages
- Egoism Problem — The motive for being moral might become merely to avoid punishment or gain bliss.
- Euthyphro Dilemma. - Should we love one another because God commands us to do so? Or does God commands us to love one another because that is what we ought to do?
Euthyphro dilemma
We ought to love one another because God commands us to do so.
But what if he commands something immoral? Moral truths seem to be necessary truths.
God commands us to love one another because that is what we ought to do.
But then moral goodness is independent of God, and he is subject to it.
Goodness without god
What are secular/humanist alternatives?
- “Fundamentalists correctly perceive that universal moral standards are required for the proper functioning of society. But they erroneously believe that God is the only possible source of such standards.
- Philosophers as diverse as Plato, Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, George Edward Moore, and John Rawls have demonstrated that it is possible to have a universal morality without God.
- Contrary to what the fundamentalists would have us believe, then, what our society really needs is not more religion but a richer notion of the nature of morality.”[^1]
[^1]: Morality Requires God ... or Does It? by Theodore Schick, Jr". Secularhumanism.org. 29 July 2005. Retrieved13 November 2011.
Goodness without god
- Cultural relativism — to each his own.
- Amoralism — do what works.
- Vitalism — whatever is beautiful and lively is good (Dorian Gray)
- Scientific ethics — do what is objectively good for people.
- Natural law — ethics grounded in the laws human nature.
Goodness without god
- Cultural relativism — to each his own.
- Objection: Cannot criticize other immoral cultures.
- Amoralism — do what works.
- Objection: Counterintuitive; we know we should not do what works if it’s wrong.
Vitalism — do whatever is beautiful and lively and exciting (Dorian Gray)
- Objection: Simply immoral.
Scientific ethics — do what is objectively good for people.
- Objection: How to resolve disagreements about the nature of science?
- Objection: “Flourishing” — what is it? Humility or pride?
Natural law, a compromise
- Natural law — ethics grounded in the laws human nature.
- Objection: Identify basic goods: life, friendship, knowledge, freedom.
- Objection: Identify basic moral duties and prohibitions: do good, avoid evil, harm no one.
- Negotiate less basic goods: how much freedom? Etc.
Business and Religion: Summary
- Most people are religious.
- Almost everybody has a moral sense, whether they are religious or not.
- Almost everybody is morally decent most of the time.
- Businesses must be ethical businesses.
- How are they ethical? Does God figure in or not?
- If so, then what is the role of divine commands in public life?
- If not, then how does the natural law apply to business?
Next week, we’ll discuss Utilitarianism, the theory that pleasure is the only good and needs to be maximized.
2 minutes left
- Questions?
- What is the role of religion in business?
- Write a short response: should divine commands play a role?
- Read handouts